The United States and Vietnam

The United States found itself with very contradictory feelings toward Vietnam in the period after 1975

It hoped to keep Vietnam out of Soviet control; wanted Vietnam's cooperation in searching for MIA's (mainly to reduce the intense cynicism in the U.S. about the government's policies); and even considered some form of normalization

The Carter Administration took some initial steps toward normalization but found considerable resistance in the House of Representatives

Two major issues stood between the U.S. and Vietnam: the failure of the U.S. to make good on promised reconstruction aid (U.S. claims Vietnamese attacks in 1973-1975 and MIA issues cancel the U.S. commitment); U.S. support to China as part of containing the Soviet Union

The confluence of Soviet alliance and invasion of Cambodia undercut any positive policy and cast U.S. policy into a deeply anti-Vietnam posture

By the mid to late 1980s, U.S. policymakers sought to take advantage of the move toward reform and the reduction in the Soviet role, but Cambodia and increasingly the MIA issue blocked any forward movement

Also by the mid-1980s, a very vocal pressure group - the National League of POW/MIA Families - had formed in the U.S. to simultaneously call for tough sanctions on Vietnam for not helping locate MIAs and oppose any relaxation of U.S.-Vietnam ties; the emotions surrounding Vietnam essentially blocked any loosening of policy

President Bush, in 1989-1990 began to respond to the Vietnamese liberalization in domestic and international policies with an new MIA effort

The U.S. and Vietnam began a joint MIA effort in 1991 designed to test Vietnamese willingness to cooperate with the U.S. and to begin a process that would lead to normalization of relations

The U.S.-led war with Iraq was an additional barrier to relations, due to Vietnam's significant relations with Iraq (15,000 Vietnamese workers were in Iraq earning foreign exchange)

Nevertheless, throughout 1991 and 1992 several steps were taken by both countries to improve relations

The Clinton Administration took several steps toward normalization in 1993, including agreeing to let multilateral lending agencies (World Bank and Asian Development Bank) make loans to Vietnam and agreeing to OK action by the Ford Foundation to establish educational links with Vietnam

On February 3, 1994 the U.S. embargo against Vietnam, in place since 1964, was lifted

On February 28, 1994 a Ford Foundation sponsored course on international relations for Vietnamese government and party officials began in Hanoi; taught by two U.S. professors

On July 11, 1995 the U.S. and Vietnam established diplomatic relations

On July 28, 1995 Vietnam was admitted to ASEAN

The major remaining issue between the U.S. and Vietnam is most favored nation status for Vietnam, which will permit it to export to the U.S. at much lower tariffs